Appalachia--Science in the Public Interest

AMERICAN GINSENG

1. Introduction

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolium) is a long-lived
perennial plant native to cool woodland regions of the Eastern
United States and Southern Canada. Though it was once a fairly
common wild herb, excessive harvesting and poor conservation
practices have made it scarce.

Biological Description

The ginseng plant has a distinctive appearance. During the
growing season it has a slender stalk that reaches a height of
eight to sixteen inches. Near the top of the plant the stalk
diverges into prongs, each bearing five egg-shaped leaves with
irregular saw-toothed edges. In the first year of growth, the
plant typically has only one prong. In succeeding years, the
plant develops additional prongs until, at full maturity, it has
between three and five prongs.

In spring the stalk of the ginseng plant sprouts from a
gnarled stem (rhizome) that lies above the ground at the top of
the root. Early in the spring, a cluster of tiny yellow-white
flowers appears with the leaves at the top of the stalk. Later,
these flowers give way to small green kidney-shaped berries.
Through the summer and fall, the ginseng berries ripen to a
bright red. These berries are a favorite food of birds and
rodents who help propagate wild ginseng by spreading undigested
seeds in their droppings. In the late fall, typically after the
first heavy frost, the ginseng plant sheds its stalk. When the
stalk is shed, a ring-shaped scar is left on the rhizome. Since
each residual scar corresponds to one year of growth, the age of
the plant can be estimated by counting the number of rings on the
rhizome. After the stalk is shed, the ginseng root lies dormant
until the next spring when the cycle begins again.

2. Medicinal and Herbal Value

The ginseng root has long been prized for its reputed
medicinal value. The Chinese variety (Panax ginseng) has
occupied a central place in Asian medicine for centuries. Native
Americans and early European settlers in North America also
recognized ginseng as an important medicinal herb. In the Far
East many people consume ginseng regularly in the belief that it
promotes good health and well-being. It is also believed to have
curative qualities. Though ginseng is commonly prescribed by
physicians in Asia and Russia for a number of ailments, Western
medicine has been very skeptical of the herb. In the United
States, because of F. D. A. regulations, it is illegal to market
ginseng as a medicine. Instead, ginseng is usually sold as a
health food or nutritional supplement.

In the Orient, varieties of ginseng from different regions
are believed to have various qualities. Chinese ginseng is
thought to have a stimulative effect, while American ginseng is
thought to have a soothing effect. Ginseng from Korea is
administered primarily as a curative agent to restore strength
after an illness or surgery.

Ginseng contains a number of chemicals and nutrients
including steroidal compounds, vitamins B and C, volatile oils,
amino acids, fatty acids, and trace elements. The active
compounds which are supposed to give ginseng its medicinal
qualities are called "ginsenocides." Several ginsenocides have
been isolated in the laboratory and proven to have distinct
physiological effects. However, whether these compounds can be
absorbed by the body through consuming ginseng is a subject of
controversy among scientists and physicians.

3. The Economics of Ginseng

Harvesting wild ginseng has been an important source of
supplemental income for people in North America since the 1700s.
By the time Europeans began to settle in North America in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, wild ginseng in China had
been harvested to near extinction. So, the discovery of wild
American ginseng by a missionary Jesuit priest in 1716 opened an
opportunity for export trade in the root with the Far East.
Several early American explorers and entrepreneurs including
Daniel Boone and John Jacob Astor were heavily involved in
ginseng trade with Asia. Today, wild ginseng hunters still comb
the woods of the Eastern United States in search of the rare
root. Additionally, many throughout North America are involved
in various levels of ginseng cultivation.

In 1993, the United States exported almost 1.5 million
pounds of ginseng. North American ginseng production currently
makes up about 16% of world trade in ginseng root. Over the next
several years, with the rapid expansion of the Chinese economy,
the export market for ginseng is expected to grow significantly.
The introduction of new ginseng products and a growing interest
in the health benefits of ginseng in the United States suggests
that there may be a greater domestic market for ginseng in the
future as well.

4. Cultivated Ginseng

Because of the high price paid for ginseng and the
increasing scarcity of the root in the wild, efforts were made to
cultivate ginseng on a large scale in the late 1800s. Ginseng is
a difficult plant to cultivate because it requires very
particular growing conditions. Many early attempts at
cultivation failed. But eventually, using artificial shade and
soil conditioning, several successful ginseng farms were
established. Today, cultivated ginseng accounts for more than
90% of American ginseng exports.

Cultivated ginseng has a different appearance and commands a
much lower price than wild ginseng. The roots are generally
larger and straw colored. In contrast, wild roots are smaller,
have a dark weathered appearance and are banded with dark rings.
The price paid for field-cultivated ginseng typically ranges from
$25 to $50 per pound, while high quality wild ginseng can bring
in excess of $400 per pound. In recent years the price paid for
wild ginseng has more than doubled. Virtually-Wild Ginseng

The large price gap between wild and field-cultivated
ginseng has prompted efforts to produce a wilder looking root by
cultivating ginseng in forest environments. Mr. Syl Yunker of
Stanton, Kentucky has pioneered a method he calls, "virtually-
wild" cultivation. This method has potential for being
profitable while having little negative impact on the
environment. It has the added benefit of requiring very low
overhead expense and little maintenance.

Basically, the virtually-wild method involves selecting and
preparing a site, planting seed and allowing nature to take its
course. According to Mr. Yunker, the guiding principle in
growing virtually-wild ginseng is to foster the plant in
conditions as close as possible to those found in the wild.
While this method may not return a profit as quickly as more
intense cultivation methods, the low set-up cost, the minimal
maintenance required and the higher price paid for wilder looking
roots make it an appealing alternative.

As an environmental caution, when cultivating ginseng in
forests, if possible, regional seed should be used. Ginseng
exhibits great genetic diversity from region to region. Regional
varieties are adapted to local climate and soil conditions. Seed
stock from outside the region may not produce as successfully as
native stock. Additionally, there is a possibility that native
stock could be damaged through cross-pollination with cultivated
out-of-region varieties. While ginseng is primarily a self
pollinating plant, some cross-pollination is provided by sweat
bees and hover flies. Cross-pollination could cause mixing
between native and cultivated varieties that could threaten local
wild ginseng populations.

Site Selection and Preparation

The most important consideration in selecting a good site
for ginseng cultivation is shade. Ginseng requires a site that
has at least 75% shade. It is best to select an area that is
shaded by hardwood trees, since softwoods, like pine, often have
shallow root systems that make digging and planting difficult.

Ginseng tends to grow best on gentle well drained slopes
with light soil and good air circulation. Plants should be
exposed to as little direct afternoon sunlight as possible.
Slopes that face northeast are ideal. While ginseng will grow in
a variety of soil types, it grows best in wood loam with a
slightly acidic pH (5.5 - 6.0). Soils with high clay content are
not suitable for ginseng cultivation. Mr. Yunker recommends
arranging fallen limbs to improve and maintain soil condition.
Strategically placed limbs help retain organic matter on
hillsides and prevent erosion.

First-time growers should start on a small scale the first
year (20 or 30 seedlings) to assess their site. If the site
works well, the bed can be extended and additional plants added
the following year.

Fertilizers should not be used on forest cultivated ginseng.
They can cause rapid growth, making the plant more susceptible to
disease and the root less wild in appearance. Never use manure
to fertilize ginseng. It gives the root a bad flavor and will
significantly devalue the crop.

Germination

Untreated ginseng seed requires 18 to 24 months to
germinate. This means, given the three to five years required
for the plant to mature, it may be as many as seven years before
a crop is ready to harvest if untreated seeds are used.
Artificial methods of accelerating the germination process
(stratification) can be employed to reduce germination time to as
little as eight months. Stratification techniques include
allowing the seed to germinate in sand or sphagnum moss or
soaking the seed in an acid solution.

In developing virtually-wild ginseng, Mr. Yunker has used
stratified Canadian seed purchased from a dealer in Kentucky for
his initial crop. However, in subsequent reseeding he has chosen
to directly plant the berries from his plants without removing
the pulp or stratifying the seed.

Purchasing Seed

If seed is purchased from a dealer, inspect it before
planting. If seeds are soft or damaged, they should be returned
to the dealer for replacement. If seeds have cracked and begun
to sprout, this is not a sign of damage. Seeds can be purchased
stratified or unstratified. Unstratified seeds are commonly
referred to as "green seeds." Seeds that have been stratified
will yield plants the following spring. Green seeds will require
an extra year to sprout.

Seeds are normally sold by weight. There are usually
between 6,000 and 9,000 per pound, depending on the regional
variety. Seeds from Canada and other northern regions are larger
than regional varieties from the South and so, there are fewer
per pound. Seeds should be planted as soon as possible after
they are received. If immediate planting is not feasible, they
should be allowed to air out for a short period. They should
then be moistened and refrigerated. Check the seeds every few
days to ensure they remain moist but not damp. It is very
important that they be kept cool and moist before planting.

Harvesting Seed

Once the ginseng bed is producing, seeds can be harvested
from the plants and can either be sold or used to expand the bed.
Each of the ginseng berries contains two seeds (on average).
During the first two years of growth, the plant will usually not
produce fertile seed. However, each season after this period,
plants should produce from twenty-five to fifty berries
containing fertile seed. Berries should only be harvested from
mature plants in the late summer and early fall when they are
fully ripe (bright red). Seeds taken from unripe berries will
not grow.

Planting

The best time to plant ginseng seed is in the fall. Since
each berry contains two seeds, when using purchased seeds Mr.
Yunker recommends planting two seeds together to more closely
approximate wild conditions. Once the plants are producing
fertile seed, he advises planting whole berries. After the seeds
or berries have been planted, they should be covered with leaves
or other mulch.

Seeds should be planted at a depth of about 1/2 inch and
spaced at least six to nine inches apart. Planting ginseng too
close together can result in poor air circulation, making the
plants vulnerable to fungal diseases. Additionally, growing
ginseng in overcrowded conditions can cause pathogens to build up
in the soil that prevent growing healthy ginseng in the same
patch again.

Maintenance

Once the ginseng patch has been planted, it should not
require much maintenance. Plants should be monitored
occasionally to ensure the soil beneath the mulch is moist and
that the plants are disease free. The tops should be removed
from plants that show signs of disease. The greatest concern for
the ginseng grower is the security of the crop, both against
forest animals and people. Forest animals, like moles and mice,
will occasionally cause crop damage by nibbling at the rhizomes
or roots. Mice and chipmunks will also eat the berries.
Constructing a small fence around the patch using 24-inch wide
aluminum sheeting can be effective in keeping out small rodents.
However, be sure that the supporting posts are placed inside
rather than outside the fence or mice will climb them.
Mechanical traps can also be useful in reducing damage caused by
rodents.

Security

Guarding a crop against thieves can be difficult. Besides
close monitoring, there are few low-cost security options. Mr.
Yunker suggests that cooperation between fellow ginseng growers
can help relieve the burden of constantly checking the crop.
Having other growers attend your patch when you are absent can
help deter thieves. Growers should also work together with
local law enforcement officials to help secure crops.

It is good to be familiar with laws regarding ginseng theft
in your area. The laws vary from state to state. In some
states, such as North Carolina, theft of ginseng is a felony
offense. In other states, like Kentucky, there are only very
weak laws protecting ginseng growers. It is extremely important
not to overreact if you catch someone stealing ginseng in your
patch. Trespassing and suspicion of theft do not legally justify
the use of deadly force against an intruder. If you shoot or
otherwise injure someone caught stealing ginseng or trespassing
in your patch you could find yourself in a lot of legal trouble.

The use of dead-fall devices -- trip devices that can kill
or injure an intruder -- are against the law in every state.
Violation of these laws typically carries very severe penalties.
DEAD-FALL DEVICES SHOULD NEVER BE USED TO PROTECT YOUR CROP.
Consult local law enforcement officials for advice for what to do
if you catch someone trespassing or stealing ginseng.

Harvesting Roots

Ginseng must grow a very long time before the root is
marketable. If ginseng is harvested before it is fully mature,
the roots are almost worthless. For cultivated plants, roots
should not be harvested before the plants are three years old.
If using the virtually-wild method, waiting even longer to
harvest is recommended. Mr. Yunker allows his ginseng to mature
for a very long time, harvesting only 10% of his mature plants in
any given year.

The early fall, around September, is best time to harvest
ginseng. During this time, the roots are at their heaviest and
will lose only about 65% of their weight in the drying process.
Roots harvested in the spring and summer can lose as much as 80%
of their weight when dried.

Harvesting ginseng does not require much equipment. Usually
a large screwdriver or gardening fork for digging and a small
sack to collect the roots will suffice. It is important to
exercise caution when digging ginseng roots. Roots that have
been cut or broken bring a much lower price than undamaged roots.
In selecting a digging tool, choose one that is not likely to cut
the root.

Cleaning and Drying

Care should be taken in cleaning ginseng roots after
harvesting. The roots may be rinsed off with water but should
never be scrubbed or scraped. Scrubbing and scraping can damage
and devalue the root. It is best to allow the soil to dry on the
root for a few days and then shake it off. If there is still
soil on the root, it can then be removed by swishing the root in
a bucket of water. Remove only the loose soil from the root.
Soil in the grooves of the root enhances its color and makes it
more desirable to buyers.

After roots have been harvested and cleaned, they can then
be dried. While some dealers will accept green roots, green
roots do not command prices as high as dried roots. Drying roots
is not difficult, but it does require patience, care and
attention. If roots are dried too quickly or under too much
heat, they can crack or discolor. If they remain damp for too
long, they can mold.

The first step in preparing to dry roots is to build or
acquire drying trays. A drying tray is easy to build. Simply
assemble a frame, 5 feet long by 3 feet wide, using 1"X 3"
boards. One board should be nailed across the bottom-center of
the frame for support. After the frame is assembled, the bottom
should be covered with 1/4" mesh hardware cloth.

Roots should be arranged in trays in a single layer. There
should be ample space between the roots to allow for drying.
Trays should be propped up against a wall or on a set of saw-
horses to provide maximum air circulation around the ginseng.
The best results are achieved if temperatures are maintained
between 90 and 100 degrees Fahrenheit for at least the first
twelve hours of drying. After this initial drying period, most
of the moisture is gone from the roots and the temperature can be
allowed to drop as low as 70 degrees. Using this method, the
roots should be sufficiently dried in two weeks.

Attics and storage sheds can be ideal places for drying
ginseng, provided they are warm enough and humidity can be kept
low. Use of a dehumidifier and fans may be necessary to remove
excess moisture from the air. Ginseng should not be dried in
direct sunlight because sun drying can cause spots to form on the
root.

Once dried, ginseng roots can be kept for a very long time
without spoiling, provided they are kept free of excessive
moisture. People sometimes hold their ginseng for several years,
waiting for the optimum market price.

Marketing Harvested Ginseng

There are a number of avenues available for marketing
ginseng. For small quantities of root it may be best to sell to
a local dealer. Typically, local dealers can be trusted to pay a
fair price based on their judgment of the quality of the roots.
As with any business transaction, it is a good idea to shop
around for the best price.

For larger quantities of roots, it may be more prudent to
deal with a large ginseng exporter. Large exporters have staff
that are trained to adeptly gauge the various grades of ginseng
quality. This can translate to a higher price for the seller.
To deal with large exporters it is usually necessary first to
contact them and then mail a two or three pound sample of the
batch to be sold. Based on the sample, the exporter will quote a
price and, provided the batch is similar to the sample, will pay
on delivery.

A third option being explored by Syl Yunker and fellow
growers around Stanton, Kentucky, is a ginseng co-op. By pooling
their resources, the members of the Boone-Sang Cooperative
Association hope to eventually deal directly with buyers in Asia,
maximizing the price they receive for their roots and improving
their ability to respond to the demands of the Asian market.

5. Wild Ginseng

Hunting Wild Ginseng

Wild ginseng hunting is an art that is jealously guarded by
those who practice it. Success usually comes only with
experience and persistence. In looking for wild ginseng, one
should seek areas well shaded by hardwood trees. Ginseng is
often found growing among hickory, beech, and poplar trees. It
is seldom found in thick stands of oak or mountain laurel.
Seasoned ginseng hunters look for certain plants that indicate
sites favorable to ginseng. These include wild sarsaparilla,
jack-in-the-pulpit, and golden seal.

Hunting wild ginseng requires very little equipment. In
addition to a digging tool and a sack, a hunter will probably
also need good off-trail hiking equipment (a walking stick, good
boots, first-aid kit, etc.). For those unfamiliar with local
wild plants, a pocket field guide can also be helpful. Field
guides provide descriptions, information, illustrations and
sometimes photographs of regional wild plants. Most can be
purchased at book stores for under $15.

Because of the endangered status of wild ginseng, the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service has mandated that states allowing the
export of wild ginseng have protective regulations in place.
Consequently, most states have adopted a late-summer/early-fall
ginseng hunting season. Since specific regulations vary from
state to state, state wildlife authorities should be contacted
for information about local requirements before attempting to
hunt ginseng.

Hunting Ginseng in National Forests

Hunting ginseng in national forests is presently permitted
under U.S.D.A. Forest Service policy. Before hunting ginseng in
a national forest, permission should be sought from the local
federal forest ranger. A permit will be issued that allows the
hunter to harvest in a particular area. There is a nominal fee
that must be paid to the Forest Service based on the weight of
the ginseng harvested. Typically this fee is very small. The
Forest Service also requires that certain digging and
conservation practices be followed. Check with the U.S. Forest
Service for current harvesting regulations.

Conservation of Wild Ginseng

To ensure that the wild ginseng population stays healthy and
that harvests will be sustainable for years to come, ginseng
hunters should exercise good conservation practices. After
digging ginseng, the berries of the plant should be planted close
to the same spot and covered with leaves. Immature or small
roots should not be harvested. There is a lot of variation in
root shape and size, but a good rule of thumb is that roots
suitable for harvest should be at least an inch in diameter and
three inches long. If a smaller root is accidently unearthed it
should be replanted in the same spot and the ground around it
tapped down. Hunters should also be careful not to injure or
accidentally dig up adjacent immature ginseng plants.

A key factor in promoting the conservation of wild ginseng
is education. Because of the legendary prices paid for wild
ginseng, many novice hunters recklessly tramp into the woods in
hopes of getting rich quick. If they are lucky enough to stumble
upon and recognize ginseng plants, they often destroy immature
plants and harvest without regard for future growth. People
should be made aware that wild ginseng is classified as an
endangered specie and that there are laws regulating its harvest
and export. They should also be made aware that, while hunting
wild ginseng can provide a substantial supplemental income,
getting rich is unlikely. It generally requires 100 - 200 mature
roots to make a pound of dried ginseng. Even at the premium
prices paid for high quality wild ginseng, 100 roots translates
to a lot of difficult hiking and digging, especially for the
novice. It is important that tips on good harvesting and
conservation practices are freely passed on. Conservation
benefits everyone.

6. The Importance of Forest Conservation

Clearcutting and other exploitative logging practices
currently pose a serious threat to wild ginseng populations.
While trees may eventually grow again in forests that have been
cut down, it is doubtful that wild ginseng will return. The
shade, soil and drainage requirements of ginseng prevent it from
growing without thick stands of hardwood trees and rich forest
soil. Exploitative logging practices destroy habitat for wild
ginseng, as well as potential sites for cultivated ginseng and
other profitable sustainable woodland crops. If we are to
maintain the viability of ginseng and other rare woodland species
for future generations, it is imperative that we support efforts
to protect, preserve and restore our forests.

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

Ford, Barbara. "Ginseng" Science Digest. November, 1976 30-6

Kelly, J. Herb Collectors Manual and Marketing Guide: Ginseng
Growers and Collectors
Manual. Looneyville, WV: Wildcrafters, 1977

Laycock, George. "Earthlog" Audubon. July, 1978. 6

Lewis, Walter H. and Vincent E. Zenger. "Breeding Systems and
Fecundity in the American
Ginseng." American Journal of Botany. March, 1983. 466-8

Lewis, Walter H. and Vincent E. Zenger. "Population Dynamics of
the American Ginseng"
American Journal of Botany. October, 1982. 1483-90

Macera, Lucile. "Ginseng: The Wonder Root." Conservationist.
May/June, 1982. 30-3

Persons, Scott. "Growing Organic Ginseng" Mother Earth News.
Sep/Oct, 1984. 66-8

Persons, Scott. "Ginseng: Green Gold" Mother Earth News.
Jul/Aug, 1983. 24-7

Pritts, Kim. Ginseng: How to Find, Grow, and Use America's
Forest Gold. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 1995

Veninga, Louise. The Ginseng Book. Santa Cruz, CA: Ruka
Publications, 1973

Syl Yunker. P.O. Box 717 Stanton, KY 40380

Boone-Sang Cooperative Association. c/o Syl Yunker, P.O. Box
717 Stanton, KY 40380